Knowledge and Agriculture

Education, the cornerstone of a knowledge economy, is given a low priority in developing countries. This is because of the vested interests of powerful but corrupt parliamentarians who find it in their interests to keep the masses subjugated and enslaved. Education brings understanding and awareness, and frees the minds to question those in power. Distorted forms of democracy in which there is no accountability of the rulers have been set up in many developing countries. Such democracies only serve a few corrupt leaders who loot and plunder at will.
The attempt in 2010 to destroy the Higher Education Commission (HEC) was the brainchild of some politicians with forged degrees who felt threatened by a high quality, merit-based organisation operating like an oasis in a sea of corruption. It was saved by the intervention of the Supreme Court of Pakistan on an appeal (filed by the Atta-ur-Rahman, Ms Marvi Memon and Azam Swati) that gave a judgment that the attempt to shred the HEC was unconstitutional. Now, however, some evil minds are plotting the death of the HEC again.
With their eyes on the Rs44 billion annual grant of higher education, some “honourable” parliamentarians have recently moved a bill in parliament that will take away the control of the funds from the HEC and give it to a federal ministry. At present the funds are controlled by a 17-member commission that includes the provincial secretaries of education, eminent educationists and respected citizens. India, by contrast, has decided to close down its University Grants Commission and establish an organisation similar to the HEC. The Indian cabinet approved the establishment of the National Commission on Higher Education and Research (NCHR) in December 2011.

HIt is time for the political parties in Pakistan to unite, rise up once again and kill the vile attempt by the corrupt to take control of the Rs44 billion annually made available to the HEC for the operational and development needs of the universities in Pakistan.
By the year 2000 the gap between rich and poor countries had reached 500:1 (World Bank) and it continues to increase with every passing day. While some countries such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and, more recently, China have managed to narrow this gap between the rich and the poor, most other developing countries, including Pakistan, are lagging far behind. Knowledge and technological innovations are identified as two essential capabilities for bridging this gap. Since no country has all the resources to achieve technological competence in all fields, most countries have concentrated on finding one or two areas of specialisation for comparative advantage. For Pakistan, this advantage at present, according to our study, lies in the agriculture sector.
The agriculture sector in Pakistan supports two-thirds of the rural population and remains the largest income and employment generating sector of the economy but accounts for only 22 percent of the total gross domestic product. Pakistan has not been able to exploit its immense agriculture potential due to under- investment in human resource development and agriculture research. According to the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIR), public expenditure for agriculture research in Pakistan as a percentage of agricultural GDP is only 0.29 percent, whereas India and Bangladesh spend 0.36 percent and Mexico and Kenya spend 1.21 percent and 1.30 percent, respectively.
The 15-year agriculture reform and development vision for Pakistan was prepared under the supervision of one of us (Dr Atta-ur-Rahman). It involved research scientists, industrialists, farmers association and economists and identified critical skills, technology, management and public policy gaps in all fields of agriculture including major grain crops, horticulture, fisheries, animal husbandry, rangelands and forestry. Research areas, technological inputs and better operational practices needed in soil, seed, fertilisers, pesticides and water management as well as the transport, grain storage and cold chain infrastructure required for prevention of 40-45 percent of post harvest losses have been identified.
It was observed that 75 percent of Pakistan’s agriculture potential remains untapped. Crop yields on average are lower by 31-75 percent of the productivity level achieved at local research stations and lower by 50 percent to 83 percent in developed countries. These productivity gaps can be addressed through increased inputs in human resource development, research, technology and extension services and through improved management of resources and inputs. Improved access to institutional credit and access to local and international markets are essential prerequisites. Pakistan has all the basic ingredients to excel and eventually lead in agricultural innovation at regional level.
Most of the agriculture research organisations. however, are poorly managed and remain ill-equipped with modern machinery, library and information infrastructure and qualified staff. There are no incentives for scientists to innovate and there are weak linkages between stakeholders (i.e., researcher, farmers, entrepreneurs and policymakers) due to a weak extension services system. In order to carry out reforms of the system and to increase agriculture productivity an investment of Rs1078 billion will be required over a period of 15 years. This investment is expected to generate Rs2,368 billion as net benefits with an internal rate of return close to 108 percent (PIDE 2003).
At their initial stages of development most developed countries invested in agriculture innovations to eliminate rural poverty and to bridge the income inequality gap between rural and urban populations in their societies. China’s agriculture reform programme has not only lifted millions out of poverty but generated enough income for investment in industrial innovations. The successful programme, which began in the early 1980s, is premised on providing flexible, demand-driven packages of services, not just technology but also information, technical assistance, marketing and developing supply networks and supply chains.
In 1986, the Chinese ministry of science and technology initiated the nationwide “Spark” Programme (derived from the Chinese proverb “A single spark can start a prairie fire,” meaning that the spark of science and technology will spread over vast rural areas of China). Its overall objectives were to help transfer managerial and technological knowledge from more advanced sectors to rural enterprises and to help increase productivity and employment.
We need to learn how countries such as China, Egypt and India have modernised agriculture and are using it to tackle poverty and transition to a knowledge economy. Simultaneously we must resist continuing attempts by crooked minds to destroy the HEC.
Acknowledgement: We are grateful to Bilal Mirza, PhD Fellow, United Nations University-MERIT, the Netherlands, for his valuable input
Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman is former federal minister for science an technology and former chairman of the Higher Education Commission
Dr S T K Naim is an expert on STI policy and a consultant at COMSTECH, Islamabad.
Courtesy: The NEWS

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Challenges to Biotechnology in Pakistan

By  Sayyar Khan Kazi

We are living in an age, where almost all aspects of human life have been revolutionized by the highly sophisticated and advanced technologies.  In recent years, we have witnessed on print and electronic media, several scientific endeavors to target innovations and discoveries beyond the boundaries of our planet Earth. Technologically advanced countries such as the USA, European Union, Japan and emerging powers like China and India are beating one another to have speedy access to the mysteries of other planets.

In the quest of unraveling scientific mysteries, several missions from these countries have been launched to Moon, Mars and other planets in order to lead and dictate the terms upon which the human future will rely. Overall, there has been unpreced- ented progress towards industrialization that revolutionized every aspect of human life including medical and health care, aviation, urbanization, infrastructure and agriculture. 

This off course presents a bright picture of the evolution of human civilizations as a result of thousands years of transformation from living in an age of stone to highly civilized societies equipped with social and scientific tools to govern this planet Earth.

Like other scientific disciplines, Agriculture science has received much importance due to the growing needs of expanding populations for more food, feed, fiber and alternative energy resources. In this connection, the advent of modern biotechnology and genetic engineering tools has enabled scientists to manipulate the genetic material of organisms in order to exploit its hidden enormous potential.

In the past two decades, biotechnological tools have brought a paradigm shift in the orthodox and traditional ways and means of improving our various industries, health sciences, environment and agriculture.

For example, in agriculture, since 1995, there has been a sudden boom in the production of transgenic varieties of agricultural crops with enhanced protection from insect pests and diseases. Farmers around the world have gained maximum economic gains from the adoption of these improved crop varieties.

The wide adoption of these improved crop varieties by farmers around the world has resulted a huge economic benefit and positive effects on the environment by less pesticide application.

After the successful production and adoption of disease resistant crop plants, agriculture biotechnology is entering into a new phase of developing second generation transgenic crops that will be able to grow on marginal lands with high water and soil salinity and drought stresses.

It is anticipated that the development of these crop varieties will help to feed the growing populations, particularly in regions of Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, where majority people are facing hunger, poor quality and malnourished food.

Keeping in view the promising role of biotechnology for securing the future of our coming generations, increasing number of countries, public, private sectors and multinational companies have joined the race and invested billions of dollars for research and development activities.

In some areas, scientists have excelled and accomplished significant targets like crop disease resistance as mentioned above and development of accurate laboratory tools for genetic dissection, diagnosis and research on human genetic diseases.

Pakistan, a developing country is facing multi-faceted challenges including energy crisis, food security, rapid urbanization and declining fresh water resources in the wake of increasing population and the more global phenomenon of climate change.

Like other countries, Pakistan also took a bold step towards adoption of modern biotechnology and started to establish biotechnology centers across the country. In all key national science and technology policies, the role of biotechnology as a potential tool for the growth and socio-economic development has been well acknowledged.

In National science and technology policies launched in 1997 and later in 2009, biotechnology was emphasized one of the priority areas. Pakistan also contributed and pioneered the establishment of an International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), initially proposed to be built in Pakistan but later on jointly built in India and Italy.

Despite the initial recognition and quick response, biotechnology did not take roots as an emerging source of socio-economic development in the country. For example, we started research on insect resistant transgenic cotton varieties back in 1995 and developed some transgenic lines but it took almost 15 years to launch legal commercial cultivation of these varieties in 2010.

The other leading cotton producing countries namely USA, China and India adopted and commercialized transgenic cotton varieties in 1996, 1997 and 2002 respectively and farmers in these countries earned huge economic gains.

In addition, we are also lagging behind other countries in development of second generation transgenic crops with improved tolerance to environmental stresses and crops for bio-energy production. The dependency on fossil fuels as energy sources is on the decline because of the enormous potential of bio-feed stocks (crops, trees and grasses) to produce bio-energy products such as ethanol, biodiesel, butanol and petroleum on industrial scale.
Source: The Frontier Post

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Ban imposed on release of inland subsidy on sugar export

MUSHTAQ GHUMMAN

Caretaker Minister for Commerce and Textile Industry, Maqbool H H Rehmatoola has reportedly imposed a ban on release of inland subsidy on export of sugar as well as the subsidy under the Strategic Trade Policy Framework (STPF) 2009-12 and 2012-15, well informed sources told Business Recorder.

The Economic Co-ordination Committee (ECC) of the Cabinet, under the three-week long leadership of former Finance Minister, Saleem Mandviwalla, approved billions of rupees of financial incentives for politically influential sugar industry under the guise of inland subsidy on a summary moved by the Commerce Ministry.

However, the decision, considered questionable could not be implemented; several decisions taken by Saleem Mandviwalla are currently being heard by the Supreme Court of Pakistan. "Commerce Minister believes that the amount of inland subsidy can be used in elections, which is why he imposed a ban on the release of the amount under this head," the sources added.

Likewise, processing of cases of release of subsidy to exporters as announced in STFP is to be discontinued by the Trade Development Authority of Pakistan (TDAP). The Minister feels that TDAP should not release any amount under that head as it would be considered against the directives of Election Commission of Pakistan. The officials in TDAP and Trading Corporation of Pakistan (TCP), who intended to expedite cases of sugar mill owners and exporters for release of subsides were likely to be disappointed with that decision, said an official on condition of anonymity.

The sources said ECC in its meeting on March 6, had approved inland subsidy of Rs 1.75 per kg on 1.2 million tons of sugar. Earlier, the ECC meeting presided over by former finance minister Abdul Hafeez Shaikh had approved Rs 8 billion incentives on export of 1.2 million tons of sugar on summaries prepared by the Commerce Ministry and the Federal Board of Revenue (FBR).

However, SRO issued by the FBR favoured only sugar mills of Sindh zone. According to sources, Punjab produces 60 percent and KP 10 percent of overall sugar output in the country. The exclusion of both provinces has been strongly lamented by the industry as the SRO only favours one province. This SRO is being challenged in the court as discriminatory in nature and the major quantum of growers'' payments relates to Punjab. If KP and Punjab mills try to export through Karachi Port for destinations other than Afghanistan and CIS, it costs over 20 dollars in terms of haulage and it is practically impossible to export. According to sources, Secretary Finance Dr Waqar Masood has decided that the issue of release of inland subsidy should be left to the new elected government.

^{Source Business Recorder}

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Dry seeded rice technology

By Zuhair Hasnain

Dry seed rice cultivation on the mechanical lines is the linkage of past practice with throughput technology, becoming indispensable to address problems like drudgery, high production cost, low quality, low crop intensity and above all water and labour scarcity.
The sowing of dry seeds into dry or moist, non-puddled soil has many advantages over traditional transplanting and is a principal method of rice growing in many parts of the world including Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Korea, America, Japan and the sub-Saharan Africa.
In Pakistan traditional dry seeding in rice is reported only in few acres across Punjab and a big space exist for both research and extension wing of the agriculture department for its standardisation, popularisation and adaptation. With the recent developments in rice production technology across the globe, there should be flexibility in opting for the prevailing patterns and latest trends to achieve self-sufficiency and resource conservation.
Dry seeded rice, a simple approach, is beneficial for farmer. The foremost principal underlying this theory is water saving, cost benefit ratio, efficient land utilisation and better management practices. Water situation in the country and its scarcity need not be elaborated. In dry seeding of rice 30 per cent of water can be saved by eliminating puddling and if
intermittent irrigation (alternate wetting and drying concept), a new method of irrigation, is used additional 15-30 per cent of water can be saved and that can be a big achievement.

Beside, about 40 per cent of labour cost can be saved by dry seeding method. Dry seeding also implies time saving, quicker land preparation in effective manner, and maximised yield.
Going ahead, if one more step is taken by clubbing the dry seeding rice cultivation with mechanised farming, it can reward the farmers more by generating the idea of intensification, higher yield with low input, reduced tillage and efficient utilisation of nutrients (proper placement and time).
Mechanisation will lead the growers to resource use efficiency and sustainable agriculture while muting the voice of environmental pollution.
The biggest challenge to this practice is weed manifestation. Various pre- and post-emergence chemicals have been introduced to fix it. Besides this, research is going worldwide over this system of cultivation for best management practices under innovative ideas by agronomists in regards to response of new breeding lines, adaptation to different soils and climatic conditions, and effective use of mechanisation concept.
Finally, this change in sowing pattern is expected to have a big impact on Asian rice production efforts and on the region’s economies. This is because one of the main forces driving such changes has been shrinking resources in the region, especially available land and water.
Pakistan should be a part of knowledge sharing and applied research centers working round the world. This way one can succeed in the achievement of mutually agreed benefits such as serving humanity, coping food security and fighting for the cause of hunger.
Effort in the direction of increasing output at the least cost is more important as the world population is going to increase to nine billion by 2050, which will require more than doubling the current food production. Asia grows 90 per cent of rice of the world which is mostly consumed by its population.
Each hectare of rice-producing land at present is providing food for 27 people. By 2050, because of growth in population and increasing urbanisation, each hectare will have to feed at least 43 people. This means that yields must be enhanced by at least 50 per cent over the next 40 years to prevent mass malnutrition among the 700 million Asians.
The writer is a PhD research scholar at The International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines.

z.hasnain@irri.org

Courtesy: The DAWN

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Agriculture: Soil Microbiology

Soil Microbiology Until fairly recently, the living soil has been considered as a functional black box that is intrinsically too difficult to be unravelled into its core components. However, this concept has changed with the advent of the modern methodologies. The intricacies of microbial life in soil has been impacted by the advanced, mainly molecular-based, approaches that have been unleashed on the soil habitat in recent years.

The application of molecular and other advanced methods (cultivation-independent analyses) has provided exciting new insights into microbial life in soil. Soil is an extremely diverse and complex habitat containing many microsites and gradients that form a range of different biogeochemical interfaces. Depending on the proportion of sand, silt and clay, the surface area in soil can vary from 11 cm2 up to 8 million cm2 per gram of soil read more.

The aggregates formed by minerals, soil organic matter, fungal hyphae, roots and plant debris offer a range of potential niches for microorganisms with different lifestyles. The architecture of the soil pore network essentially defines the habitat colonized by the microorganisms and the pore space strongly influences the nature and extent of the interactions between the organisms inhabiting the soil. The latest news, research, and developments in energy technology from the technology Truenergy melbourne Save water. Save Energy. Save Money. Ecovantage improves the sustainability of your home and your budget.

The heterogeneous physical structure of soil affects the spatial distribution of water, oxygen and nutrients, which in turn influences the composition and activity of the microbial communities themselves. As an example, the spatial distribution of bacteria in topsoil and subsoil was found to be different, but lateral variations in spatial distributions are also likely to occur. Soil is the surface layer of earth on which the human civilization depends for its existence. Actually soil represents the loose upper crust of the earth surface distinctly different from the underlying bed rock.

Its depth, colour, composition vary from place to place, but all soils are common in consisting of inorganic (mineral) and organic matter, water, and gaseous phases. Every soil is made up of a succession of layers, collectively known as soil-profile, reaching down to the parent material. The soil-profile consists of two or more horizontal layers, called horizons. The soil horizon may vary in thickness, mineral composition, and structure; they are indicated by the letter A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, etc. A1 horizon is the uppermost or surface layer of the soil and its fertility level is very important from viewpoint of an agriculturist.

Soil fertility depends not only on the presence of inorganic and organic substances, but also on the

presence of various species of

Courtesy:Restoration Soil

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Role of Potassium in Crop Yield

Potassium is vital to many plant processes. A review of its role involves under-standing the basic biochemical and physiological systems of plants. While K does not become a part of the chemical structure of plants, it plays many important regulatory roles in development.

Enzyme Activation

Enzymes serve as catalysts for chemical reactions, being utilized but not consumed in the process. They bring together other molecules in such a way that the chemical reaction can take place.

Potassium “activates” at least 60 different enzymes involved in plant growth. The K changes the physical shape of the enzyme molecule, exposing the appropriate chemically active sites for reaction. Potassium also neutralizes various organic anions and other compounds within the plant, helping to stabilize pH between 7 and 8...optimum for most enzyme reactions.

The amount of K present in the cell deter-mines how many of the enzymes can be activated and the rates at which chemical reactions can proceed. Thus, the rate of a given reaction is controlled by the rate at which K enters the cell.

Stomatal Activity (Water Use)

Plants depend upon K to regulate the opening and closing of stomates...the pores through which leaves exchange carbon diox-ide (CO 2), water vapor, and oxygen (O2) with the atmosphere. Proper functioning of stomates is essential for photosynthesis, water and nutrient transport, and plant cooling. When K moves into the guard cells around the stomates, the cells accumulate water and swell, causing the pores to open and allowing gases to move freely in and out.

When water supply is short, K is pumped out of the guard cells. The pores close tightly to prevent loss of water and minimize drought stress to the plant. If K supply is inadequate, the stomates become sluggish – slow to respond – and water vapor is lost. Closure may take hours rather than minutes and is incomplete. As a result, plants with an insufficient supply of K are much more susceptible to water stress.

Accumulation of K in plant roots produces a gradient of osmotic pressure that draws water into the roots. Plants deficient in K are thus less able to absorb water and are more subject to stress when water is in short supply.

Photosynthesis

The role of K in photosynthesis is complex. The activation of enzymes by K and its involvement in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production is probably more important in regulating the rate of photosynthesis than is the role of K in stomatal activity.

When the sun’s energy is used to combine CO2and water to form sugars, the initial high-energy product is ATP. The ATP is then used as the energy source for many other chemical reactions. The electrical charge bal-ance at the site of ATP production is maintained with K ions. When plants are K deficient, the rate of photosynthesis and the rate of ATP production are reduced, and all of the processes dependent on ATP are slowed down. Conversely, plant respiration increases which also contributes to slower growth and development.

In some plants, leaf blades re-orient toward light sources to increase light interception or away to avoid damage by excess light, in effect assisting to regulate the rate of photosynthesis. These movements of leaves are brought about by reversible changes in turgor pressure through movement of K into and out of specialized tissues similar to that described above for stomata.

Transport of Sugars

Sugars produced in photo-synthesis must be transported through the phloem to other parts of the plant for utilization and storage. The plant’s transport system uses energy in the form of ATP. If K is inadequate, less ATP is available, and the transport system breaks down. This causes photosynthates to build up in the leaves, and the rate of photosynthesis is reduced. Normal development of energy storage organs, such as grain, is retarded as a result. An adequate supply of K helps to keep all of these processes and transportation systems functioning normally.

Water and Nutrient Transport

Potassium also plays a major role in the transport of water and nutrients throughout the plant in the xylem. When K supply is reduced, translocation of nitrates, phosphates, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and amino acids is de-pressed. As with phloem transport systems, the role of K in xylem transport is often in con-junction with specific enzymes and plant growth hormones. An ample supply of K is essential to efficient operation of these systems.

Protein Synthesis

Potassium is required for every major step of protein synthesis. The “reading” of the genetic code in plant cells to produce proteins and enzymes that regulate all growth processes would be impossible without adequate K. When plants are deficient in K, proteins are not synthesized despite an abundance of avail-able nitrogen (N). Instead, protein “raw materials” (precursors) such as amino acids, amides and nitrate accumulate. The enzyme nitrate reductase catalyzes the formation of proteins, and K is likely responsible for its activation and synthesis.

Starch Synthesis

The enzyme responsible for synthesis of starch (starch synthetase) is activated by K. Thus, with inadequate K, the level of starch declines while soluble carbohydrates and N compounds accumulate. Photosynthetic activity also affects the rate of sugar formation for ultimate starch production. Under high K levels, starch is efficiently moved from sites of production to storage organs.

Crop Quality

Potassium plays significant roles in enhancing crop quality. High levels of avail-able K improve the physical quality, disease resistance, and shelf life of fruits and vegetables used for human consumption and the feeding value of grain and forage crops. Fiber quality of cotton is improved. Quality can also be affected in the field before harvesting such as when K reduces lodging of grains or enhances winter hardiness of many crops. The effects of K deficiency can cause reduced yield potential and quality long before visible symptoms appear. This “hidden hunger” robs profits from the farmer who fails to keep soil K levels in the range high enough to supply adequate K at all times during the growing season. Even short periods of deficiency, especially during critical developmental stages, can cause serious losses.

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Upping your nutrition quota

If aesthetics aren’t a good enough reason to grow herbs, consider the fact that many herbs are good for you, too. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), a teaspoon of dill seed contains 32 milligrams of calcium; a teaspoon of ground basil contains 6 milligrams of magnesium. But when it comes to nutrients, the herbal champ is the chili pepper: One tea-spoon of chili powder contains potassium, sodium, ascorbic acid (vitamin C),  niacin, and vitamin A. (However, if you decide to substitute chili powder for  your multivitamin, we recommend taking each teaspoon with a gallon of milk  to offset the heat of the chili.)
A few culinary herbs have recently made the news because of their antioxidant levels. Antioxidantsare chemicals contained in plants that are thought  to play a role in preventing some forms of cancer, as well as in helping to  slow the aging process. In one study researchers tested the antioxidant levels of a variety of herbs and found the highest levels in oregano, sage, peppermint, and thyme. They concluded that herbs are an important source of  dietary antioxidants, right up there with red wine and green tea.

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Mealybug: Biology and control

Vaughn M. Walton
ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, Stellenbosch

Mealybug (Planococcus ficus) is one of the key pests affecting vines in South Africa. The last two seasons favourable climatic conditions urged viticulturists to focus on this pest once more. To control the mealybug successfully, a thorough knowledge of the insect’s biology is required. In this article an attempt is made to shed light on the biology of mealybug and possible control strategies will be recommended.

Biology and Life cycle The rate of development of mealybug is directly dependent on environmental temperature. Eggs are laid in egg-sacs consisting of a mass of wax threads. Crawlers hatch after 7-10 days at an average temperature of 25°C (Fig.1).

Crawlers cast their skins to become 2nd and 3rd instar larvae (nymphs), while third instar larvae cast their skins to become adult females. After mating, the egg-sac develops and the female starts laying up to 750 eggs at a time. Damage is only caused by the female mealybug. She is more visible than the male, since the latter only lives between one and three days. The female feeds with sucking mouthparts and nutrients are extracted from the plant, while honeydew is excreted.

The male mealybug causes no damage as it has no feeding mouthparts. The only difference between the lifecycle of the two sexes is that in the case of the male, second instar larvae spin a cocoon in which the third instar larvae, pre-pupae and pupae develop. Adult winged males then appear from the cocoon. In summer mealybugs can complete their lifecycle in 3 to 4 weeks, causing populations to develop rapidly under favourable conditions.

Seasonal occurrence

In winter mealybugs hide beneath loose bark and in cracks on the trunks of vines (Whitehead, 1957). It was recently found that mealybug can also hibernate on vine roots (Fig. 2) and weeds (Fig. 5).

In winter they continue to feed on vine sap and lay eggs. Due to the low environmental temperature the lifecycle is very slow. As soon as temperatures start rising in spring and early summer, crawlers emerge from below the bark and cracks in search of the new growth with its higher nutrient concentrations. Crawlers settle on new leaf and shoot growth where they develop, mate and multiply. In January/February these populations are at their highest. Mealybugs then move to the bunches where the nutrients are increasing. Here they feed mainly on the bunch and berry stems. In late summer and autumn nutrients start moving to the roots from the leaves and stems (Conradie, 1985) and the downward migration of mealybugs takes place once again.

Symptoms and possible damage

Mealybugs excrete sticky honeydew on which sooty mildew (a fungus) grows. Affected bunches can be rejected in the case of table grapes and downgraded by wine cellars. When mealybug infestation is serious, browning and wilting of leaves may occur, as well as early shedding. The latter, as well as mealybugs feeding on vines, can result in loss of nutrients which may cause weakening of the vines (Fig. 3).

High infestations may result in desiccation of bunches, making them totally unmarketable (Fig. 4).

Repeated serious infestations can cause individual vines to die. Furthermore, while early shedding of leaves can cause sunburn damage to grapes, mealybug is also a vector of leafroll virus.

Integrated control

With integrated control, chemical, biological and cultivation methods are used in conjunction with each other. Each method contributes to the total control strategy. In an integrated programme various aspects should be considered to ensure an environmentally friendly, yet effective end result.

Integrated mealybug control may be implemented in the planning phase, even before planting. Factors that could play a role are cultivar differences and macro- as well as micro-climatic conditions.

Certain cultivars are more susceptible to mealybug than others and are indicated in Table 1 (Le Roux, 1996).

Before planting a new vineyard, the history of mealybug infestation in the area should be ascertained, especially if one of the more susceptible cultivars is being considered. If high average temperatures occur in a specific area, there is a bigger chance of mealybug problems. Favourable micro-climates, e.g. slopes that get excessive northerly sun, may also occur in certain blocks and encourage mealybug infestation.

a) Monitoring

It is of the utmost importance that a vineyard which is regularly plagued by mealybug should be monitored for the pest early in the season. By regular monitoring, the development of a problem may be predicted and possible control strategies implemented. An early indication of mealybug is the presence of ants. Certain weeds (as indicated below) have roots that may be checked for the presence of mealybug. These observations may serve as early warning signs. At least twenty vines, evenly distributed over a block of one hectare, must be monitored. Later in the season mealybug infested vines are more visible – they are covered in honeydew and sooty mildew and ants are usually present. In the late summer early shedding of leaves and desiccated bunches are further symptoms. In winter sooty mildew and sometimes even ants are already visible on infested vines. Infested vines should be marked throughout the season, in the course of pruning and vine preparation and also during harvesting. Vines that are marked make it easier to control mealybug accurately and effectively. Once monitoring has been done, a decision can be taken as to which control strategy should be followed.

b) Weed control
Before considering any other means of control, the first step is to control weeds. During the past season it was found that various weeds may serve as hosts for mealybug.

Mealybug occurs on the roots of the following weeds (For illustrations of weeds refer to Fourie et al., 1996) :

• Common blackjack (Bidens pilosa)
• Khaki weed (Tagetes minuta)
• Small mallow (Malva parviflora)
• Flax-leaf fleabane (Conyza bonariensis)
• Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum)
• Thornapple (Datura stramonium)
• Sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
• Musk Herons Bill (Erodium moshantum)
• White goosefoot (Chenopodium album)

A correlation has been found between the occurrence of these weeds and mealybug problems in vines. The best method of control is the planting of cover crops as recommended by Fourie et al. (1997). Long flowering cover crops that do not host mealybug may reduce ant problems, may help to reduce the forming of dust, may serve as supplementary nutrition for natural enemies and may bind nitrogen. Weeds may also be controlled physically (shrub beaters) and chemically (herbicides) (Fourie et al., 1996). Weeds have to be controlled from early in the season, since they act as access routes to the vine for ants and do not contribute much to the quality of the soil. Ant control is impossible if weeds grow into the vines.

c) Ant control
Effective ant control is a prerequisite for mealybug control since ants protect mealybug against its natural enemies. Ueckermann (1998) found the most effective means of ant control to be circular spraying around the trunk. This method of control is also more environmentally friendly than chemical treatments on the soil. The purpose of this application method is to keep ants out of the vines, but still allow them on the soil surface. Here ants may act as predators of beetle, fruit fly and moth larvae and pupae. At the moment chlorpyrifos EC is the only registered pesticide against ants (Nel et al., 1999). Chlorpyrifos has also been tested at 41ml/L (not a registered concentration) with reasonably good results (Ueckermann, 1998). Trunk treatments for ants should be dependent on ant activity. Usually ants become more active from October onwards if mealybug is present.

d) Natural enemies and biological control
Natural enemies can only impact on mealybug control if prior practices have been implemented. There is worldwide resistance to the use of insecticides. South African wine farmers therefore have to limit the use of chemical products to the absolute minimum. In future the role of natural enemies will consequently increase. Research indicates that if integrated control is applied correctly, these natural enemies can control mealybug successfully. For this reason it is essential to recognise natural enemies in the vineyard and surroundings before considering the use of chemical products.

The most common natural enemies of mealybug include the parasitic wasp which plays an important role in most vineyards. The most important parasitic wasps are Anagyrus sp. (Fig. 6A), Leptomastix dactylopii (Fig. 6B), and Coccidoxenoides peregrinus (Fig.6C).

These insects eliminate mealybug populations by laying their eggs in the host. The parasite eggs develop in the body cavity of the mealybug. The host is eventually killed when the parasite engulfs the body cavity and hatches. Coccidoxenoides peregrinus is being bred on a large scale at Nietvoorbij and is then set free in trial blocks. Results obtained over the past two seasons are very promising and in future C. peregrinus can possibly be bred co-operatively and released to control mealybug. However, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether these insects are indeed present in vineyards. It is possible, nevertheless, to notice mummies of parasitised mealybug with the naked eye (Fig. 7).

Predatory beetles also occur in vineyards early in the season. The most dominant beetles include Nephus quadrivittatus (Fig. 6D) and Nephus bineavatus (Fig. 6E). These beetles eat various stages of mealybug.

d) Chemical control
This method of control should be seen as the last resort for mealybug control, since no insecticides are environmentally friendly. The substances mentioned below are organophosphates that are poisonous to people, cattle, birds, fish, natural enemies and bees. Since mealybug occurs in random spots in vineyards, an attempt should be made to give spot treatments in order to reduce the impact on the ecosystem.

Certain products are only applied in the growing season, while others are used both in winter and the growing season. Dosages (per 100l water) also differ, depending on the growth stage. Dormant treatments (before the new growth begins) should only be applied if more than 5% infestation occurs. This reduces hibernating mealybug populations to such an extent that natural enemies can control mealybug effectively the next season. Routine dormant spraying should be avoided. Try to spray only the vine that has been marked and the two vines on either side with hand-held spray guns and a high pressure pump. Atomiser sprays do not give sufficient coverage. The following chemical products and application methods are still being used at present (Nel et al., 1999; Vermeulen, 1999):

• 1.Chlorpyrifos EC (480g/l) at 200ml/100l is recommended twice, 14 days apart, prior to budding. After budding there are problems with phytotoxicity on young shoots and leaves. Chlorpyrifos at this dosage also suppresses the Argentine and Cocktail ant.
• 2.Profenofos EC (500g/l) at 100ml/100l is also recommended twice,14 days apart, prior to budding. Thorough drenching is required.
• 3.Protiofos EC (960 g/l) at 50ml/100l is recommended once before budswell. A safety period of 100 days must be maintained, however.

During the growing season the following chemical products and application methods are allowed (Nel et al., 1999; Vermeulen, 1999):

• 1.Chlorpyrifos EC (480g/l) is recommended at 75ml/100l from four weeks after budding up to 28 days before the harvest. Take note of the dosage, higher dosages will result in phytotoxicity on leaves.
• 2.Dichlorvos EC (1000g/l) is recommended at 75 ml/100l up to 7 days before harvest. This treatment is only supplementary to winter treatments.
• 3.Dimethoate EC (400g/l) is recommended at 125ml/100l up to 28 days before harvest.
• 4.Formothion EC (250g/l, 330g/l) is recommended at 150ml/100l up to 10 days before harvest.
• 5.Methidathion EC (420g/l) is recommended at 50ml/100l up to 8 days before harvest. This treatment is prescribed as a late corrective one-off treatment.
• 6.Mevinphos SL (500g/l) is recommended from 37,5-45 ml/100l up to 7 days before harvest.

e) Post-harvest spraying
Post-harvest spraying is not recommended, since this is the period when the populations of natural enemies, which are a lot more susceptible to insecticides than mealybug, are at their highest. Spraying at this stage interferes with biological control for the next season. If vines deteriorate, and early shedding of leaves occurs, the infested vines only can be sprayed.

f) Further guidelines

If a decision to use chemical control is taken, the following guidelines may be followed in order to interfere as little as possible with biological control of mealybug:

Apply the minimum amount of chemical products per season. If full cover has to be achieved with spraying, products that degrade rapidly (withdrawal period of 7-10 days) are recommended. In old vines loose bark around the main trunk and neck may be removed so that penetration of the insecticide will be more effective and more mealybugs killed. For ant and snoutbeetle control, synthetic pyretroids are recommended for trunk spraying instead of soil or full cover spraying. With monitoring and correct application no more than two trunk sprays per season are required. With snoutbeetle control, full cover spray with synthetic pyretroids (withdrawal periods of 28 days and longer) should be avoided. Rather apply fruit fly bait droplets than a full cover spray. Chemical control for budmite should only be applied if bud analysis at the time of pruning indicate this to be necessary.

Planting suitable cover crops has several advantages. It limits dust forming, which decreases natural enemies efficiently. It provides certain natural enemies with alternative nutrition and shelter. It benefits weed control and improves soil quality. Attempt to establish cover crops that flower early and for a long time during the season, thereby giving natural enemies an early advantage in the season.

In conclusion

Mealybug remains one of the key pests in the viticultural industry. To address this problem, five projects are currently registered with ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, viz.:

• Mass breeding of natural enemies of mealybug
• Integrated control of mealybug in vineyards
• Bio-testing of insecticides on natural enemies of mealybug
• Determination of life-span tables of mealybug and an important natural enemy
• Determination of the economic threshold values of mealybug

With these projects an attempt is being made to develop effective and environmentally friendly control strategies against mealybug.

Further queries about mealybug or its natural enemies may be addressed to Vaughn Walton at Tel.: 021 809 3167, Fax: 021 809 3002, or e-mail: vaughn@nietvoor.agric.za.

Literature references

Annecke, D.P. & Moran, V.C. 1982. Insects and mites of cultivated plants in South Africa. Butterworths, Durban/Pretoria.

Conradie W.J. 1985. Nitrogen nutrition of the grapevine (Vitis vinifera spp.). Ph.D., University of Stellenbosch.

Fourie, J.C. 1996. Uitkenning en chemiese beheer van belangrike onkruide in Wingerde van Suid-Afrika. Nooitgedacht Pers, Kaapstad.

Fourie, J.C., Louw, P.J.E., & Agenbach, G.A. 1997. The effect of different cover crop species and cover crop management practices on the available N and N-status of young Sauvignon blanc vines on a sandy soil in Lutzville. Abstract, South African Society for Enology and Viticulture Congress, 27-28 November 1997, Cape Town.

Le Roux, P. 1996. Die chemiese beheer van wingerdwitluis, in Wingerdwitluis paneelbespreking, SAWWV – Kongres, Kaapstad, 8 November 1996.

Nel, A., Krause, M., Ramautar, N. & Van Zyl, K. 1999. A guide to the control of plant pests. Directorate: Agricultural Production Input, National Department of Agriculture, Republic of South Africa.

Prinsloo, G.L. 1984. An illustrated guide to the parasitic wasps associated with citrus pests in the Republic of South Africa. Department of Agriculture Science bulletin, No. 402.

Ueckermann, P. 1998. Ant control in vineyards. Wynboer Tegnies 105: 8-9.

Vermeulen, A.K. 1999. A Guide to the use of Registered Fungicides and Pesticides against Grapevine Diseases and Pests: Wine Grapes. ARC-Fruit Vine and Wine Research Institute, Private Bag X5026, Stellenbosch, 7599, South Africa.

Whitehead, V.B. 1957. A study of the predators and parasites of Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera) on vines in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa.

Source: http://www.wynboer.co.za

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NEEM OIL FOR PESTS

It seems like no matter what time of the year, insects abound, but there is a great organic solution available to keeping bugs in check.
Of course good gardening practices and proper crop rotation help, but sometimes you need a helping hand to keep your plants safe.
The neem tree, which has insecticidal properties and is native to India and Africa, produces seeds that have been used to repel insects and pests in stored grains and in gardens and homes for years.
Today, the extract of the neem tree seed is the active ingredient in Neem-Away Insect Spray. Neem-Away suppresses an insect’s desire to feed and disrupts its hormonal balance so it dies before molting.
Field tests have shown Neem-Away to be effective against a wide range of insects from aphids and caterpillars to corn borer and squash bugs. Neem-Away will not harm beneficial insects such as lady beetles and lacewing.
Neem oil can be used on a broad range of insects on vegetables, fruits and nuts, flowers, trees and shrubs.
Apply when pests first appear to prevent damage. Repeat every 7-10 days as needed; regular spraying increases its effectiveness.

Source: http://www.weekendgardener.net

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LEAFMINERS: Biology and Control

LEAFMINERS
(Agromyzidae)

Leafminers tunnel within leaves, giving foliage an unattractive appearance. In addition to a cosmetic problem, leafminers can also damage beets, chard, and columbine.

DESCRIPTION

Adults are flies that are black, or black and yellow, and are 1/10 of an inch (2.5 mm) long. You will rarely see them. Their larvae are pale green, stubby, and translucent maggots that are found in the tunnels in the leaves. Eggs are white and cylindrical.

LIFE CYCLE

Adults emerge from overwintering cocoons in early spring and lay their eggs side by side in clusters on the undersides of leaves. The larvae mine leaves for 1 to 3 weeks, then pupate for 2 to 4 weeks inside the leaf or they can drop to the soil to pupate. There are normally 2 to 3 generations per year; more in greenhouses.

PLANTS MOST AFFECTED

Bean, beet, cabbage, chard, lettuce, pepper, tomato, and many other vegetables. They also attack many ornamentals, especially chrysanthemum and nasturtium.

DAMAGE

Larvae tunnel through the leaf tissue, making hollowed-out, curved, or winding mines. Larval damage can kill seedling plants by removing chlorophyll and reducing the plants photosynthetic capacity. Mines and feeding punctures also produce an entrance for pathogenic organisms. Excessive leaf mining in older plants can cause leaves to dry, resulting in sunburning of fruit and reduction in yield and quality. In severe infestations, leafmining may cause plant death.

LEAFMINER CONTROL

Prevention:
1. Cover seedlings with Floating Row Covers to keep adult flies from laying eggs on leaves. Keep covers on all season if the pests are numerous.
2. Remove any nearby dock or lamb's-quarters because they are natural hosts for beet leafminers.
Control:
1. Handpick and destroy any mined leaves.
2. Remove any egg clusters as soon as they are visible.
3. Spray Neem Oil.

Source:http://www.weekendgardener.net

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Cherry Nutrition Facts

A bowl full of sweet cherries is brimming with health benefits. Cherries are naturally low in fat and calories and free of both cholesterol and sodium. They are also a good source of dietary fiber, vitamin C, potassium and contain boron.

Facts

• The word 'cherry' comes from the French word ‘cerise,’ which in turn comes from the Latin words cerasum and Cerasus, the classical name of the modern city Giresun in Turkey.
• It is believed that the sweet cherry originated in the area between the Black and Caspian Seas in Asia Minor around 70 B.C. The Romans introduced them to Britain in the first century A.D.
• Cherries are drupes, or stone fruits, and are related to plums, peaches and nectarines.
• There are 430 species in the genus Prunus which include cherries, plums, peaches, apricots and almonds - just to name a few.
• The English colonists brought cherries to North America in the 1600’s.
• There are more than 1,000 varieties of cherries in the United States, but fewer than 10 are produced commercially.
• On average, there are about 44 cherries in one pound.
• In an average crop year, a sweet cherry tree will produce 800 cherries.
• Seventy percent of the cherries produced in the United States are grown in the Northwest.
• Stemilt Growers is the world’s largest shipper of sweet cherries.
• While they have long been a popular dessert fruit, cherries were used for their medicinal purposes in the 15th and 16th centuries.
• Researchers first found that eating cherries may help relieve gout and arthritis attacks back in 1950 during a preliminary study of daily cherry consumption.
• Anthocyanids give cherries their red color.
• The world's heaviest cherry was grown by Gerardo Maggipinto (Italy) and weighed 21.69 g (0.76 oz) on June 21, 2003. The cherry was presented at La Grande Ciliegia, in Sammichele di Bari, Italy.

Fiber: One cup of cherries contains 3 grams of dietary fiber, an essential ingredient in a healthy diet. Adults should consume between 20 and 30 grams of fiber each day. Research suggests that a high-fiber diet can prevent constipation, lower the risk for developing digestive disorders, lower cholesterol, control blood sugar and aid in weight loss.

Potassium: Cherries are a good source of the nutrient potassium, with approximately 260 milligrams in a one cup serving. The recommended daily dose of potassium for adults is 3,400 milligrams. Potassium is a main electrolyte that keeps the body functioning properly and plays an important role in muscle, heart, kidney and nerve cell functions. It also works with another electrolyte, sodium, to balance water levels throughout the body.

Vitamin C: One serving of cherries has 16% of the recommended daily dose of vitamin C, a water-soluble vitamin that is essential to keep the body functioning normally and maintain a healthy immune system. Vitamin C is also a highly effective antioxidant, which means it may help prevent the onset of several chronic diseases.

Boron: Cherries also contain boron, a mineral that helps maintain calcium balance and promotes bone health. Some research suggests that boron may play a role in preventing osteoporosis, a disease in which bones become fragile and more likely to break. The level of boron needed in the diet is not known, but many nutritionists suggest consuming between 3 and 5 milligrams of boron each day. In addition to sweet cherries, boron is found in many other common fruits, leafy vegetables and legumes.

Cherry Nutrition Facts

Cherries are certainly one of today’s most popular dessert fruits, but they have been recognized for their medicinal purposes since the 1400’s. One cup of sweet cherries has just 90 calories and is a good source of fiber and vitamin C. With these great attributes, it’s no wonder why many nutritionists, dietitians, and other health professionals often refer to cherries as a superfood. Read on to learn about the many “super-powers” of cherries:

Cherries and Antioxidants:

Did you know that cherries rank among the top 20 foods with the highest concentration of antioxidants. In fact, the standard one-cup serving of cherries has the capacity to carry 4,873 antioxidants! Antioxidants are substances found in foods that may protect cells from damage caused by unstable molecules, known as free radicals. Cherries are especially rich in a phytochemical called anthocyanin. They also contain melatonin, phenols and quercetin.

Cherries and Melatonin:

There are many instances in life when your sleep patterns are disrupted. Whether it is expected jet lag or an ongoing sleep disorder, fresh cherries and the melatonin they contain can be an ally for you! Melatonin is a naturally occurring hormone produced by the pineal gland in the brain. It plays a key role in regulating the body’s internal clock and helps determine when we fall asleep and when we wake up. Eating a handful of cherries just before bed is a great way to naturally regulate your sleep cycle.

Cherries, Arthritis and Pain Relief:

Great news for arthritis sufferers! A bowl full of cherries may help alleviate pain and inflammation associated with arthritis and gout, the most severe form of arthritis. A gout attack occurs when excessive amounts of uric acid (waste product found in the blood) accumulate in the joints, and cause inflammation and pain.

Back in 2004, researchers from the Agriculture Research Service and University of California-Davis teamed up to study the effects consuming cherries could have on reducing pains caused by gout. They found that participants who ate 45 sweet cherries during breakfast significantly decreased their blood plasma levels while simultaneously increasing the amount of uric acid removed through urine. According to the researchers, these two changes are signs of a healthy immune system fighting inflammation.

Cherries and Heart Health:

Cardiovascular disease, or heart disease, is the single leading cause of death in America. One of the many health benefits of cherries is that they contain powerful antioxidants called anthocyanins, which may reduce a person’s risk of developing cardiovascular disease.

Just like red wine, anthocyanins give cherries their deep red color and also protect cells from damage during an interaction with oxygen. This important process also serves to protect the heart and surrounding tissue, inhibit plaque formation and reduce inflammation.

Cherries and Brain Health:

Cherries are one of the few foods that contain melatonin. In addition to helping regulate sleep patterns, melatonin is an important antioxidant that helps maintain optimum brain functioning and may deter the onset of age-related chronic diseases like Alzheimer’s. Research also suggests that the anthocyanins found in cherries further protect neural cells and promote brain health.

Source: stemilt.com

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Chili Peppers for Beginners

By Julian Livsey
This guide is for anyone who has somehow hit on the idea that it would be fun to grow chile peppers. You haven't grown them before, perhaps you haven't really grown anything before. After a bit of research on the internet you are completely overwhelmed by the advice and information; not sure where to begin. thechileman website is not aimed at the prefessional growers, yet when we start talking in the guides about vermiculite and heated propagators it may make you wonder whether growing chile peppers is for you afterall. Well don't be put off, there is an easier way! Yes we like pre-germinating our seeds. We like heat mats, and the drainage advantage of perlite in our soil mix but you don't have to do all that. Chile plants can be stunningly easy to grow. So here is thechileman's guide for first time growers or those who don't want to bother with anything complicated...

Seeds

To grow your own chile peppers you first need seeds. There are lots of fantastic varieties of peppers available to choose from. But for the complete beginner who wants garanteed chile pods and doesn't want to wait too long to get them, the usually shorter growing time of the Capsicum Annuum's are probably a good choice, particularly for anyone growing in a cooler climate. You can buy seeds from your local garden centre or take a look at our pod pals section for some recommended seed suppliers. But if you prefer, it really is as simple as popping down to your local supermarket, buying a couple of peppers and scraping out the seeds.

Germination.

This is probably the single most discussed stage of chile pepper growing and the one that offers the most opinions. Now that you have your seeds the trick is to turn them into plants. The first stage of that is to get them to germinate. The main requirements for a seed to germinate are heat, moisture and oxygen. It is possible to germinate your seeds in everything from tissue paper to rock wool cubes, but the easiest growing medium is soil.

It doesn't matter what you use to hold your soil. Whether it is a propagator or a simple plastic box with some small drainage holes cut into the bottom of it to stop the soil getting water logged. Sow your seeds by placing them on the surface of the soil, then cover them over with more soil but only so that they are just below the surface, perhaps as little as three milimeters. Seeds only have so much energy stored before they need to generate more from light, so plant them too deep and they will run out of energy before they reach the surface.
To get moisture to the seeds you need to water the surface of the soil. Not too much, you want the soil to be moist, not water logged. The final ingredient is heat. At this stage there is no requirement for light so you may find something like an airing cupboard is ideal. Above a radiator, anywhere reasonably warm will do. But bear in mind you don't want to bake them, and also that too much heat will reduce the moisture content of your soil.

Sucessful germination

Depending upon the variety that you are growing, your seeds will take anywhere from a few days to several weeks to break the surface. You need to be patient but you will be rewarded when they push their way through the surface. While they are seedlings your plants are very sensitive and delicate so best not to touch them. Heat and moisture are still important but key now is the amount of light your seedlings receive. Place your plants in a south facing window or a warm greenhouse if you can.

Transplanting

Chile plants generally produce sets of leaves in pairs. The first set are called the seed leaves, the next set will be the first true set of leaves. Once your seedlings have these you will need to move them to a larger pot to give them more room to grow. Plant pots are cheap and easy to find. It doesn't matter what size you use, but most people would start off with one about four inches in diameter and gradually move up as the roots start showing through the drainage holes at the bottom. Leaving in a small pot will check the growth of your chile plant. You may be happy with a six inch pot so that your plant can sit on the kitchen windowsill, or you may have your eye on the empty beer keg round the back of your local pub.

Feeding

Another black art during chile pepper growing is fertilizer. Most come with a mix of NPK which is nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium. Too much nitrogen and your plants will be all leaves and no fruit, not enough and your plants may be yellow and withered. But you don't need to worry about fertilizer if you don't want to. The correct balance of light, water are really all that the plant needs. As long as your soil is half way decent the plant will be able to get all the nutrients it needs from that.

Flowering

When your plants produce flowers you are in business. This is where the fruit comes from. Again you can read plenty about how best to pollinate your chile plant's flowers but trust us, this will work - when there are several flowers open on your plant, rub your finger around the middle part to pick up the pollen, and repeat a couple of times for each flower. This will move the pollen to the stamen and start the chemical reaction needed to make the fruit.

Fruiting

If all is well the flower petals will drop off as the green middle part of the flower starts to swell slightly. This is the chile pepper beginning to grow. Depending upon which variety you have decided to grow, the chile pod that is now starting to form could end up like any of these. Keep your plant happy and it will continue to produce fruit well into the autumn and perhaps even beyond.

Source: http://www.thechileman.org

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Climate change: red alert or red herring?

Climate experts have been drawing a doomsday scenario with threats of natural disasters such as droughts, floods, water wars and other calamities that can be blamed on global warming. The hoopla has led agricultural researchers to ponder on impending food shortages, and therefore a laborious research has begun to produce climate-proof crops that can defy extreme heat or cold.

While researchers and experts have realised the need for change in production ways, the gravity of the situation has not sunk in with government departments.

“Recent disasters have, jolted their (officials’) minds but this area needs much more serious efforts particularly in climate proofing rather than just waiting for damages to happen and then take recourse. More political commitment, investment in relevant institutions, robust strategies and effective implementation and follow-up are needed” said Naseer Memon, a climate change expert.

According to Iftikhar Ahmad, chairman of Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC), increased preparedness for climate-related risk management through a multi-disciplinary approach is the need of the hour.

Time is indeed a critical factor. The impact of extreme weather patterns and scarcity of water will be felt on food production, in the next ten years, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

“This includes development of improved crop varieties with resistance to emerging biotic and a-biotic stresses, introduction of new crop species, investment in new irrigation systems, and use of eco-friendly management options (for example, organic agriculture, bio-pesticides, bio-herbicides),” Ahmad of PARC explained.

However, international agricultural economist Dr Zafar Altaf has dismissed the hype surrounding climate change.

“As plants have an inherent ability to fight drought and rain, there is little need to tamper with nature or fight climate change,” he told Dawn.com.

Meanwhile, several Pakistani agricultural experts have been busy searching for methods that could help climate-proof crops. There have been talks of setting up of national seed banks for such varieties that can withstand extreme events and even grow crops that produce more food, have more nutrients and grow on the same amount of land, with less water.

Despite the interest being shown by his compatriots, Altaf was adamant that climate-proofing is a ‘red herring’ by the west.

According to Altaf, the West’s cropping pattern, which he terms ‘meaningless,’ was inherited as a colonial legacy and is being promoted by its own interests.

“Pakistan will not run out of food, so there is no need for climate-proof crops.”

Underlining the need for innovative farming methods, he added, “new ways require imagination and specialists who are multi-disciplinarian; improved marketing of the produce and achieving food security.”

This, however, cannot be achieved without hiccups. “The pace at which climate changes will occur, needs to be at par with the change in mentality in the agriculture sector,” Altaf said.
“There is an urgent need to raise the educational standards drastically.”

In addition, the farmer has to be inducted in that development paradigm shift. “The best option is to make the farmer a party to decision making,” he said.

The same notion was endorsed by PARC chairman Iftikhar Ahmad, who called for improved climate-related decision-making should be at the farms.
“Farmers need to gain a better understanding of the climate factors that affect crop yield in their environment”.

This, he insisted, would allow decision makers to identify possible management options based on climate information or seasonal forecasts. “That will not only enhance the resilience in various cropping systems but also sustain the farm productivity.”

The threat is that if farmers are not taken along, the implication of climate change on crop yields may lead to the risk of hunger, which could be disastrous as Pakistan is already facing acute malnourishment.

According to Pakistan’s National Nutrition Survey 2011, 57 per cent of the country’s total population of 184 million is facing food insecurity.

The finding of the national survey (carried out by the ministry of health’s Nutrition Wing in collaboration with the Aga Khan University) states that among that 57 per cent, half the women and children were found to be malnourished.

Dr Zulfikar Bhutta, the lead investigator of the nutrition report, believes “increased poverty levels, illiteracy, lack of awareness regarding the right kind of food to take, and a government distracted by non-issues” has led to the unacceptable high levels of malnourishment.

“I find it extremely alarming that we will have a generation of unhealthy children who will grow up to be unhealthy adults.”

Health experts, including Bhutta have long been raising awareness regarding Vitamin A, zinc and Vitamin D deficiency.

While climate change does contribute to the malnourishment crisis, it is only one of the known risk factors that may lead to food insecurity.

“In addition to introducing farmer-friendly policies (for example, those related to market availability and stability), timely availability of inputs (seeds, fertilizers, irrigation water) needs to be ensured to minimise the impacts of climate change” Iftikhar Ahmad said.

According to Altaf, input costs can be reduced by using organic fertilisers as opposed to chemical fertiliser, which is 20 times more expensive. “But the West and the vested interests in this country would not allow such a move,” he said.

He reiterated the need to make the locally produced food easily available and affordable.

“Pakistan can make it on its own provided the marketing is made more relevant and fair.”

“At the moment the physical distance between the consumer and the producer is immense.”

When Pakistan and India were partitioned (in 1947), the number agriculture markets in Punjab was 650, which has now come down to 119.

“Consumers are suffering because of policy indifference. The small farmer can become viable if he does have the facility to sell in markets closer home.”

Altaf emphasized that Pakistan’s problems were not with nature but with humans who do not understand the implications of donor-driven policies.

He went on to add that the assistance provided by international donor agencies does not help.

“They have allowed misallocation of resources because they cannot afford failures. They go to the most likely areas where the projects can be a success – the irrigated areas of Sindh and Punjab provinces.”

“As a result, farmers based in marginal areas and fragile areas are excluded from the developmental process. These marginal areas can produce much more from their indigenous sources. It is the absence of relevant policies that is making life risky.”

Source: Dawn.com

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