حیاتیاتی کنٹرول کے جنرل تصورات

حیاتیاتی کنٹرول کے جنرل تصورات

"فطرت میں توازن." تقریبا تمام کیڑوں پر آبادی قدرتی دشمن کی طرف سے کسی حد تک متاثر ہیں. بہت سے معاملات میں، قدرتی دشمن کیڑوں آبادی کی بنیادی ریگولیٹری قوت ہیں. قدرتی کنٹرول قدرتی دشمنوں کے اثرات (شکاریوں، پرجیویوں، پیتھوجینز)، دیگر biotic اس طرح خوراک کی دستیابی اور مقابلہ کے طور پر (رہنے والے) عوامل، اور abiotic (غیر زندہ) اس طرح کے موسم اور مٹی کے طور پر عوامل میں شامل ہیں.کیڑوں پر انتظام میں "ایک پرجاتی ہے کہ کسی دوسرے کی منفی اثر کو کم کر دیتا ہے کسی بھی سرگرمی ہے."، حیاتیاتی کنٹرول عام طور پر پرجیوی کیڑوں پر آبادی ہے جو اقتصادی چوٹ کی وجہ سے میں ایک سطح سے نیچے کی تعداد کو کم کر دیتا ہے، مبارکباد، یا پیتھوجینز کی کارروائی سے مراد ہے. شاکاہاری کیڑوں اور پیتھوجینز کیڑوں ماتمی لباس حملہ بھی تصور کیا جاتا ہے biocontrol agents.Biological کنٹرول قدرتی کنٹرول کے ایک حصہ ہے اور حیاتیات کیٹ، یا نہیں کسی بھی قسم کی درخواست دے سکتے ہیں کر رہے ہیں، اور قطع نظر ہے کہ biocontrol ایجنٹ قدرتی طور پر اس وقت ہوتی ہے، انسانوں کی طرف سے پیش کیا جاتا ہے، یا کسی بھی way.Biological کنٹرول میں ہیرا پھیری کیمیائی، ثقافتی، اور میکانی کنٹرول ہے کہ میں زندہ رہنے اور ترقی کے لئے biocontrol ایجنٹ کی ترتیب میں کھانے کی فراہمی کا (مثال کے طور پر، کیٹ) کی کسی نہ کسی سطح کی بحالی کی ضرورت ہے سے مختلف ہے. لہذا، حیاتیاتی، اکیلے کنٹرول کا مطلب ہے جس کی طرف سے کیڑوں کے خاتمے کو حاصل کرنے کے لئے نہیں ہے.اہم خصوصیات:ا) اکثر نسبتا سستا ہے اور ان biocontrol ایجنٹوں جو ایک سے زیادہ سال کے زندہ اور خود perpetuating بن سکتے ہیں کے لئے "مستقل" ہو سکتا ہے.ب) تاثیر ہائی کم سے ہو سکتا ہے.ج) دوسرے کیٹ انتظام حکمت عملی، خاص طور پر ادویات وسیع میدان عمل کی طرف سے رکھا جائے تحلیل کیا جا سکتا ہے.د) Suppressive اثرات کثافت پر منحصر ہیں، یہ اس کی سب سے بڑی اثر پڑے جب کیڑوں کثافت زیادہ ہیں.ای) اکثر کیڑوں مخصوص وسیع نہیں ہے.عام طور پر فاسٹ اداکاری، F) کیڑوں آبادی اور biocontrol ایجنٹ کے buildup کے buildup کے درمیان اکثر عدم دستیابی وقت ہو گیا ہے.ز) اچھا حربہ ایک کثیر چال (IPM) نقطہ نظر میں شامل کرنے کے لئے، میں ثقافتی، میکانی، اور کچھ کے ساتھ میں پورے طور پر فٹ ہوجاتاH) کیمیکل کو کنٹرول کرتا ہے.میں) زیادہ تر کامیابیوں بارہماسی فصلوں (باغات، انگور،)، rangeland، اور فیلڈ یا چارہ فصلوں ہیں جو کیڑوں پر چوٹ کی ایک اعتدال پسند سطح برداشت کر سکتی ہے میں کیا گیا ہے.عام طریقوںحیاتیاتی کنٹرول ایجنٹوں کمرشل سپلائرز سے خریدی جائے کیا جا سکتا ہے اور ضمنی کے لئے جاریکیڑوں کے کنٹرول میں ہیں. تاہم، سب سے زیادہ حیاتیاتی کنٹرول لوگوں سے مدد کے بغیر ہوتا ہے. بہت سے شکاریوں، پرجیویوں اور پیتھوجینز قدرتی طور پر پائے جاتے ہیں اور مسلسل توازن میں نوعیت رکھنے میں مدد کرنے کے لئے کام کر ہے. حیاتیاتی کنٹرول سے اچانک جاری - - قدرتی دشمن کی اہمیت ایک وسیع میدان عمل کیٹناشک، کے ساتھ ساتھ جس میں بہت سے beneficials افراد ہلاک ہدف بنا کر کیٹ ہے، کا اطلاق اور ایک نئے کیٹ تک اکثر تعریف نہیں ہے ایک سنگین مسئلہ بن جاتا ہے. قدرتی نظام میں پہلے ہی موجود دشمن کے تحفظ اور بڑھانے حیاتیاتی کنٹرول کے ایک بہت مؤثر طریقہ ہو سکتا ہے.1. تعارف درآمد =یہ حیاتیاتی کنٹرول کا استعمال کرتے ہوئے یہ متعارف یا "غیر ملکی" کیڑوں کے لئے سب سے زیادہ استعمال "کلاسیکی طریقہ" ہے. کیٹ کی اصل کا تعین اور اس کے بعد اپنے آبائی رہائش گاہ میں تلاش یا قدرتی دشمن کیا جاتا ہے ہے. ممکنہ biocontrol ایجنٹوں کیٹ کے نئے مقام پر درآمد کر رہے ہیں اور جاری ہے. عام طور پر، امید قدرتی enemy.Classic کیڑے مثال کے مستقل قیام کے لئے ہے: 1888 میں آسٹریلیا سے Vedalia کیلی فورنیا Cottonycushion اسکیل پر کنٹرول کے لئے ھٹی پیڑوں برنگ (predaceous خاتون برنگ) درآمد،. پیمانے آسٹریلیا آبائی ہے.2. سنوردقن = ثقافت ماس ​​یا مجموعہ اور رہائیInundative ریلیز ایک قدرتی دشمن کی بڑی تعداد کی ایک رہائی، رہائی کے ایک چھوٹے یا بڑے علاقے میں ہو سکتے ہیں، قدرتی دشمن بن قائم نہیں کرتا اور دوبارہ پیش، مقصد کیڑوں کی تعداد میں کمی ایک وقت ہے. Inoculative ریلیز میں ایک سے زیادہ وقت کی مدت کے دوران ایک قدرتی دشمن کی، چھوٹے ریلیز، قدرتی دشمن اور رہائی کے علاقے میں پھیلانے بسانے کی توقع ہے.3. تحفظ اور افزونیایسے طرز عمل کا پتہ چلتا ہے جو حفاظت کے استعمال، اور پہلے سے موجود قدرتی دشمن کی آبادی میں اضافہ کو برقرار رکھنے کے.اس طرح کے طرز عمل کی رہائش گاہ کے تنوع شامل ایک قدرتی دشمن کے لئے اضافی پناہ گاہ یا غذا، مصنوعی غذائی سپلیمنٹس کی فراہمی، کیڑے مار ادویات کے استعمال کے جو ہدف کے کیڑوں کے لئے منتخب ہیں اور قدرتی دشمن پر کم سے کم اثرات ہیں، ثقافتی ایسے طرز عمل کا پتہ چلتا ہے جو یا تباہ قدرتی دشمن پریشان گریز فراہم کرنے کے لئے کر سکتے ہیں، وغیرہ1. پرجیویوں اور Parasitoidsپرجیوی ایک حیاتیات ہے کہ میں یا اس کی زندگی کی سائیکل کے کچھ حصہ کے دوران ایک اور حیاتیات (میزبان) کے جسم پر رہتا ہے.Parasitoid ایک arthropod کہ parasitizes اور دوسرے arthropod (کیڑے، mites، مکڑیاں، اور دیگر قریبی رشتہ داروں) میزبان افراد ہلاک، ایک parasitoid اس نادان مراحل اور آزاد رہنے میں پرجیوی یہ ہے کے طور پر ایک adult.Parasitoids حیاتیاتی کنٹرول میں استعمال کیا جاتا ہے کسی اور سے ایجنٹ کی قسم. wasps، مکھی، کچھ بیٹلس mantis مکھیوں، اور بٹی ہوئی پنکھوں پرجیویوں: کیڑوں جو کہ parasitoids ہیں اہم اقسام. بالغ لڑکی parasitoids ان ovipositor کے ساتھ جسم کی دیوار کو تیز کر میزبان (میزبان arthropod اس نادان مرحلے میں عام طور پر ہے) کے اندر ان کے انڈے یا وہ میزبان کے جسم سے باہر ان کے انڈے منسلک ہے.2. مبارکبادشکاری "جانوروں مفت زندہ دوسرے جانور (شکار) پر فیڈ، یہ دونوں اس کے نادان اور بالغ مراحل میں شکار پر حملہ کر سکتے ہیں، عام طور پر ایک سے زیادہ شکار فرد شکاری کے لئے ضروری ہے اس کی زندگی کی سائیکل کو مکمل کرنے کے لئے ہے." میجر اقسام کے جانوروں کی پرندوں، مچھلی، amphibians، reptiles، ستنداریوں، arthropods، اور کچھ پودوں (مثال کے طور پر، وینس فلائی ٹریپ): اس کی مبارکباد ہیں. اہم قسم dragonflies اور damselflies، mantids سچ کیڑے، کچھ thrips، lacewings اور رشتہ داروں، برنگ، کچھ wasps اور چینٹی، اور کچھ مکھیوں: کیڑوں predaceous ہیں. مکڑیاں اور کچھ mites بھی arthropods کے اہم مبارکباد ہیں.3. پیتھوجینزمائکروبیل پیتھوجینز کا استعمال کیڑوں کے انتظام کی ایک بہت ہی مقبول طریقہ بن گیا ہے. کیڑوں کا حیاتیاتی کنٹرول میں استعمال کیا جاتا میجر پیتھوجینز: جراثیم بیسیلس thuringiensis = بیٹی (بہت caterpillar کیڑوں، برنگ، مچرچھروں، دوسروں) وائرس Nucleopolyhedrosis وائرس (خانہ بدوش moth، یورپی کارن borer)، کوک Metarhizium granulosis وائرس (moth Codling). . (کاکروچ motels)، Beauveria bassiana (کولوراڈو آلو برنگ، کارن rootworms) Protozoa Nosema کے locustae (grasshoppers) Nematodes - Steinernemaand Heterorhabditisspp. (مٹی weevils، بورنگ caterpillars خلیہ).4. شاکاہاری کیڑوں اور مائکروبیلکیڑوں پر ماتمی لباس کے کنٹرول کے لئے گھاس کیڑوں کیڑوں پلانٹ پلانا کی کئی پرجاتیوں کے پیتھوجینز کا تعین کیا گیا ہے ہے. سب سے بڑی کامیابیوں rangelands، جنگلات، اور دیگر قدرتی رہائش گاہ جہاں دیگر گھاس کنٹرول کے طریقہ کار (مثال کے طور پر، herbicides، کاشت) اویوہارک یا uneconomical ہیں میں کیا گیا ہے. کچھ پیتھوجینز کو بھی کیا گیا ہے گھاس biocontrol ایجنٹوں (مثال کے طور پر، پلانٹ rusts) کے طور پر دیکھا ہے. مقصد جب ایک گھاس biocontrol ایجنٹ کا استعمال کرتے ہوئے عام طور پر گھاس آبادی کی کمی نہیں خاتمے میں سے ایک ہے. گھاس کی اصل کے علاقے سے ایک biocontrol ایجنٹ کی درآمد سے سب سے زیادہ عام نقطہ نظر رہا ہے. یہ عام طور پر ایک عمل طویل مدتی ہے جس میں مسلسل کوششوں کی ضرورت ہوتی ہے ہے، لیکن جو فوائد طویل مدتی حاصل کر سکتے ہیں.

Read More

General Concepts of Biological Control

General Concepts of Biological Control

“Balance of Nature.” Virtually all pest populations are affected by natural enemies to some extent. In many cases, natural enemies are the primary regulating force of the pest populations. Natural controls include effects of natural enemies (predators, parasites, pathogens), other biotic (living) factors such as food availability and competition, and abiotic (non-living) factors such as weather and soil.

“Any activity of one species that reduces the adverse effect of another.” In pest management, biological control usually refers to the action of parasites, predators or pathogens on a pest population which reduces its numbers below a level causing economic injury. Herbivorous insects and pathogens that attack pest weeds are also considered biocontrol agents.Biological control is a part of natural control and can apply to any type of organism, pest or not, and regardless of whether the biocontrol agent occurs naturally, is introduced by humans, or manipulated in any way.Biological control differs from chemical, cultural, and mechanical controls in that it requires maintenance of some level of food supply (e.g., pest) in order for the biocontrol agent to survive and flourish. Therefore, biological control alone is not a means by which to obtain pest eradication.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS:

a)      Often relatively inexpensive and can be “permanent” for those biocontrol agents that can survive multiple years and become self-perpetuating.

b)      Effectiveness can be from low to high.

c)       Can be disrupted by other pest management tactics, especially broad-spectrum pesticides.

d)      Suppressive effects are density-dependent; it will have its greatest impact when pest densities are high.

e)      Often pest-specific, not broad-spectrum.

f)       Often a lag time between buildup of the pest  population and buildup of the biocontrol agent; generally not fast-acting.

g)      Good tactic to include in a multi-tactic approach (IPM); fits in well with cultural, mechanical, and some

h)      chemical controls.

i)        Most successes have been in perennial crops (orchards, vineyards), rangeland, and field or forage crops which can withstand a moderate level of pest injury.

GENERAL METHODS

Biological control agents can be purchased from commercial suppliers and released for supplementary

control of pests. However, most biological control occurs without assistance from people. Many predators, parasites and pathogens occur naturally and are continually working to help keep nature in balance. The importance of natural enemies is often not appreciated until a broad spectrum pesticide, which kills many  beneficials as well as the targeted pest, is applied and a new pest   – suddenly released from biological control – becomes a serious problem. Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies already present in the system can be a very effective method of biological control.

1.     Introduction = Importation

This is the “classical method” of using biological control It has been used most for introduced or “exotic” pests. The origin of the pest is determined and then a search or natural enemies in its native habitat is conducted. Potential biocontrol agents are imported to the new location of the pest and released. Generally, the hope is for permanent establishment of the natural enemy.Classic insect example: In 1888, importation of the Vedalia beetle (predaceous lady beetle) from Australia to California citrus groves for control of the Cottonycushion Scale. The scale is native to Australia.

2.     Augmentation = Mass Culture or Collection and Release

Inundative Release– a single release of large numbers of a natural enemy; release can be in a small or large area; natural enemy does not become established and reproduce; goal is a one-time reduction in pest numbers. Inoculative Release– multiple, smaller releases of a natural enemy over a period of time; natural enemy is expected to colonize and spread in the area of release.

3. Conservation and Enhancement

Utilization of practices that protect, maintain and enhance already existing natural enemy populations.

Such practices could include habitat diversification to provide additional shelter or food for a natural enemy, provision of artificial food supplements, use of pesticides that are selective for target pests and have minimal effects on natural enemies, avoiding cultural practices that disturb or destroy natural enemies, etc.

1. Parasites and Parasitoids

Parasite– an organism that lives in or on the body of another organism (the host) during some portion of its life cycle.

Parasitoid– an arthropod that parasitizes and kills another arthropod (insects, mites, spiders, and other close relatives) host; a parasitoid is parasitic in its immature stages and free living as an adult.Parasitoids have been used in biological control more than any other type of agent. The major types of insects that are parasitoids: wasps, flies, some beetles, mantis-flies, and twisted-winged parasites. Adult female parasitoids lay their eggs inside the host (the host arthropod is usually in its immature stage) by penetrating the body wall with their ovipositor or they attach their eggs to the outside of the host’s body.

2. Predators

Predator– “Free-living animal that feeds on other animals (prey); it may attack prey in both its immature and adult stages; usually more than one prey individual is required for the predator to complete its life cycle.”Major types of animals that are predators: birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, arthropods, and some plants (e.g., Venus fly trap). Major types of insects that are predaceous: dragonflies and damselflies, mantids, true bugs, some thrips, lacewings and relatives, beetles, some wasps and ants, and some flies. Spiders and some mites are also important predators of arthropods.

3. Pathogens

Use of microbial pathogens has become a very popular method of pest management. Major pathogens used in biological control of insects:Bacteria– Bacillus thuringiensis= Bt (many caterpillar pests, beetles, mosquitoes, others).Viruses– Nucleopolyhedrosis viruses (Gypsy moth, European corn borer), granulosis viruses (Codling moth).Fungi– Metarhizium(cockroach motels), Beauveria bassiana (Colorado potato beetle, Corn rootworms).Protozoa– Nosema locustae(grasshoppers).Nematodes – Steinernemaand Heterorhabditisspp. (Soil weevils, Stem-boring caterpillars).

4. Herbivorous Insects and Microbial

Pathogens of Weed Pests Numerous species of plant-feeding insects have been evaluated for control of pest weeds. The greatest successes have been in rangelands, forests, and other natural habitats where other weed control approaches (e.g., herbicides, cultivation) are impractical or uneconomical. Some pathogens have also been looked at as weed biocontrol agents (e.g., plant rusts). The goal when using a weed biocontrol agent is generally one of weed population reduction and not eradication. Importation of a biocontrol agent from the region of origin of the weed has been the most common approach. It is generally a long-term process which requires sustained efforts, but which can reap long-term benefits.

Read More

Hydroponics Tomatoes

Hydroponics Tomatoes

Tomatoes grown hydroponically, indoors under lights, are equal to, or superior in flavour and nutrition than their outdoor, soil grown counter-parts. A tomato's sweetness and flavour is largely dependent on light and temperature. The nutritional value of a tomato is dependent on the nutrition the plant receives while growing and producing fruit. In the controlled environment of an indoor garden the plants exact requirements can be met with artificial lighting, temperature control and supplemental nutrition. This enables the grower to enjoy a continuous harvest all year long without sacrificing taste and goodness.

Hydroponics is a pure, clean method of cultivation. For this reason it is recommended you start your tomatoes directly from seed. Bringing plants in from outside creates a potential for pest and disease contamination. Start seeds in 1 inch rockwool starter cubes in a standard nursery tray with dome. Rockwool cubes should be pre-soaked in water adjusted to a pH of 4.5 prior to planting. Keep covered tray in a moist, warm (20-25^oC) environment until seedlings begin to sprout. Once vegetation appears, immediately move the seedling into a light source, metal halide or fluorescent lights, for at least 12 hours per day and remove domes. Failure to provide light soon enough will cause seedlings to bolt in search of a light source. Ensure roots are never exposed to the light as this will cause damage and death to the roots and delay plant growth.

Once true leaves appear and roots are showing through the bottom of the starter cubes usually around 10 - 14 days, seedlings are ready to be transplanted to their hydroponic garden. There are several different hydroponic methods used for cultivating tomatoes indoors. Space restrictions, type of tomato and plant size all have to be considered when choosing a system.

The most common method employed for large plants is the drip irrigation system. In this fully automated, re-circulating system nutrient solution is pumped from a reservoir, fed to the plants through drip emitters and allowed to drain back to the reservoir by gravity. In order to create gravity flow the grow unit must be placed higher than the nutrient reservoir. The nutrient is continuously circulated during light-on hours. For the home hobbyist we recommend using the expando system. This consists of an individual pot for each plant, linked to the nutrient reservoir by 1/2" tubing. Heydite, small, reusable porous rocks, are used as the growing medium providing excellent aeration to the roots. The 1 inch cube containing the seedling is transplanted directly into the pot and covered with heydite. The constant feeding allows the root system to develop in minimum space resulting in higher yields.

Drip irrigation can also be done with rockwool, a technique favoured by commercial growers. The starter cube and seedling are placed in the pre made hole of a 3 or 4 inch rockwool cube which is placed on slabs of rockwool in a trough. The roots will grow down through the cubes and into the slabs. The troughs should be slightly wider than the slabs to allow room for the nutrient solution to drain back to the reservoir. Tomato plants should be spaced about 10 to 12 inches apart or 4 plants per slab.

With both techniques the size of reservoir and pump will be determined by the number of plants. Irrigation will need adjusting as the plants grow, allow for four liters of nutrient solution per day for mature plants, smaller seedlings will consume less. The nutrient reservoir should be changed once a week. Choose a pump with a high enough gallons per hour rating to adequately reach the plants farthest from the reservoir. Emitters can become clogged with salts from the nutrient solution and should be watched closely and cleaned when necessary.

Ebb and flow or flood and drain tables are another excellent method used for cultivating tomatoes. Tables range in size from 1' X 2' to 4' X 8' and can accommodate many plants in a small area. For cherry tomatoes or smaller determinate varieties deep water culture may be used. Complete hydroponic gardens sold as kits are usually deep water culture and available in many shapes and sizes and are excellent for the novice hydroponic gardener.

No matter what technique you choose there are several growth influencing factors (GIFs) to consider. The most important GIF is light. Artificial metal halide light can simulate full summer sunlight when daylight is at it longest. At maturity tomato plants require a 16-18 hour photo-period to ensure maximum fruit production and an 8 hour respiration period of total darkness. Gradually introduce your plants to higher light levels by moving the bulb closer to the plants by an inch or two every few days.

pH is the measure of alkalinity or acidity of the nutrient solution and is another very important GIF. If pH levels are not maintained at the appropriate level (pH 5.8 - 6.3 for tomatoes) nutrient deficiencies and toxicity will occur. Even seemingly small fluctuations in pH levels can result in inferior nutrient uptake by the plant. pH will need to be adjusted up or down based on the original reading of your water source. Potassium hydroxide will raise pH while phosphoric acid will decrease pH levels. Both products are available at your local hydroponic retail store. pH can be influenced by other factors and must be monitored regularly and adjusted as necessary.

Electrical conductivity (EC), measured in milliMhos, is the measure of electrical conductance of the total dissolved solutes (minerals) in the solution. The optimum EC range for tomatoes is 2.0 to 3.5 milliMhos. While EC measures the total dissolved minerals in a solution it does not identify the amounts of specific elements present. Therefore, it is easier to achieve the ideal EC using premixed 2-part hydroponic nutrient formulations than attempting to create your own formula using individual components.

 

Temperature is also an important GIF however, it is quite easily controlled. Tomatoes, like most plants grow best with a day/night temperature differential based on light or daytime perception. When there is light the plant considers it daytime and the temperature should be adjusted accordingly. The ideal daytime temperature for mature tomato plants bearing fruit is 18 - 25^oC and nighttime is 12 - 18^oC. An independent thermostat should be placed among your plants to ensure temperature regulation. An exhaust fan will help control temperature and provide air exchange.

Plant nutrition is the basis for hydroponics and holds the key to the nutritional quality of your tomatoes. There are a wealth of pre-mixed nutrients available, however when determining which nutrient to use, look for a product that is especially formulated for hydroponic use. A 2-part formula will eliminate binding, solidification and waste of mineral elements, which occurs with ordinary 1-part plant foods.

Close observation of any changes are critical when growing hydroponic tomatoes. Early diagnosis and adjustment of nutritional disorders is crucial as they rapidly increase in severity and spread quickly.

• Check the colour of the leaves; yellow leaves may indicate that the nutrient solution isn't strong enough or pH is too high, locking out nitrogen - leach and change the solution.
• Leaf tips curl up or red stem may indicate a magnesium deficiency caused by too low a pH - leach and change solution
• Leaf tips curling under may mean the nutrient level is too high - add pH 6.0 water
• A potassium deficiency my cause flowers to fall off before setting fruit - leach and change solution.
• Blossom-end-rot caused by too much water puddling in the root zone will create a calcium deficiency - leach and foliar spray with a calcium nitrate solution.

Leaching should be done at every reservoir change to avoid encountering problems. This will rid the growing medium and root zone of toxic salt build up. To leach, rinse the root zone with straight pH balanced water. Use twice as much liquid as the hydroponic container would have held when empty.

These are some basic nutritional disorders however, they are easily avoided by using a good 2-part fertilizer, maintaining a correct pH and changing your solution regularly.

Tomatoes are pollinated outdoors by the wind, bees and other insects which carry the male pollen to the female part of the flower (stigma.) Indoors pollination must be performed manually by the grower. This can easily be accomplished using a small paint brush or q-tip to transfer the pollen. Simply dab the brush or q-tip on the stigma of each flower. This is best done daily over a period of several days when the flowers indicate their readiness to receive fertilization by bending their petals back and exposing the stigma.

Tomato plants are quite brittle and require gentle handling when pruning and staking. Use plastic twine or a plant yo-yo to encourage and support vertical growth and bear the weight of the fruit. Removing side shoots and suckers that grow between the main stem and leaf stems will further help train with vertical growth and eliminate unnecessary distribution of nutrients. Suckers should be gently broken off at their base by hand. Avoid the use of knives or scissors which can transfer diseases from plant to plant. As plants begin to produce fruit the bottom leaves will start to yellow and dry out. Remove these leaves at the main stem of the plant to allow air flow and to prevent disease and infection.

A little bit of knowledge and patience will produce infinite rewards in hydroponic gardening. That first bite of juicy August tomato in the middle of January will be your stepping stone to a culinary adventure. Harvest all of summer's pleasures indoors year round hydroponically, the homegrown way.

 

Read More

Garden Tips

Garden Tips

1.          Attract ladybugs to your garden with nectar-producing plants such as parsley, dill and fennel.

2.        Rotate your crops each year to help reduce pest and disease problems, as well as correct nutrient deficiencies and excesses.

3.        Less than 2 percent of the insects in the world are harmful. Most are beneficial insects

4.        Mow your lawn high. The less it has to struggle through rapid re-growth the stronger it is and less susceptible to disease and pests. Click here for a guide to choosing and using environmentally friendly push reel mowers

5.        Keep birds away from your garden by hanging shiny objects that flap and sparkle in the wind, such as aluminum foil, at regular intervals.

6.        Botanical insecticides are derived from plants and can be more toxic than some chemicals. They are, however, better in the long run because they break down rapidly in the environment.

7.         A strong hose spray can aide in knocking soft-bodied pests off plants such as aphids, leafhoppers and spider mites.

8.        Vegetables that become over-ripe are an automatic lure for some garden pests. Remove them as quickly as possible to avoid detection.

9.        Avoid using railroad ties in or around your vegetable garden; the chemicals used to preserve the wood are now thought to be harmful.

10.  Earthworms are extremely beneficial to the soil and plants, increasing air space in the soil and leaving behind worm castings. Do everything you can to encourage worms in your soil.

11.    Earthworms are extremely beneficial to the soil and plants, increasing air space in the soil and leaving behind worm castings. Do everything you can to encourage worms in your soil.

12.  Pest management begins with healthy soil. It produces healthy plants, which are better able to withstand disease and insect damage.

13.   Companion planting is an excellent way to improve your garden. Some plants replenish nutrients lost by another one, and some combinations effectively keep pests away.

14.  Native trees and plants are low maintenance; they develop natural defenses against insects, disease and they rarely need pruning or feeding.

15.   Use barriers against pests instead of insecticides whenever possible. Some pest barriers include floating row covers, netting, copper slug tape, protective collars, and Tangle foot Pest Barrier.

Read More

Fight fire with fire

FIGHT FIRE WITH FIRE

Fight fire with fire, not chemical warfare. Controlling pest insects these days using chemical sprays have caused a great amount of concern to both gardeners and consumers in general. Concerns that involve our environment, the health of our children, pets and for the gardeners themselves who are dispensing such chemicals or are working with the plants after they have been sprayed. Unfortunately, many of these chemicals are "non-selective" in other words, they don't just kill the target pest, they tend to kill an entire range of insects, both good and bad.

Today's biggest concern is where toxic products are applied to products that are grown for human consumption. As a result, many indoor gardeners have turned to using beneficial insects to control their pest problems.

Just what are "beneficial" insects? Beneficials are insects that help gardeners by killing pest insects and eliminate the need for using toxic chemicals. Mother Nature has developed her own system to balance out or regulate pest infestations, by using the "good bugs" to control the "bad bugs". Beneficial insects eliminate pest insects generally in one of two ways. They either parasitize them or hey are a predator of them.

Parasitic beneficial insects actually depend on pest insects for their survival because they must lay their eggs in or on them. The immature stages of the beneficial insect actually develop in or on the "host" pest insect, feeding on its body and thereby killing the "host". Predator beneficial insects are beneficial insects that actually eat the pest insect. Therefore, they actually depend on the pest insects for their survival.

Some of the most effective beneficial insects are a group known as parasitic wasps. These wasps usually lay their eggs inside a specific pest, while the pest is very young - in the egg, larval or pupal stage of their life. These wasps are incredibly tiny, generally not even one-tenth the size of the wasps that will sting you and are almost impossible to see with the naked eye - the largest parasitic wasps are generally no bigger than a 1/4 of an inch and the smallest being the size of the period at the end of this sentence. The "host insect" generally are not as lucky as we are, for the wasps' larvae develops inside the pest, the pests die and then the wasps thrive and emerge looking for a new host in which to lay their eggs and continue on the cycle.

Most wasps seek out only one species of pest, for instance Encarsia Formosa, seeks out only the whitefly eggs. Encarsia lays eggs inside the whitefly eggs (this is when the whitefly is at an immobile stage). When the Encarsia eggs hatch, the larva feeds on the whitefly embryo, then forming a pupae inside the whitefly egg, killing it if they hadn't already. The adult Encarsia wasp emerges from the whitefly egg casing by chewing an exit hole and flies off in search of a new host to lay its eggs. A female Encarsia can lay between 50 to 100 eggs in a lifetime - which is excellent when you consider that their "lifetime" is only two to three weeks.

In order to keep these beneficial insects in your greenhouse you need to supply them with the essentials for life; food and water. Generally most parasitic wasps like nectar, the sugary fluid secreted by flowers. If the wasps have the essentials for their survival, they will live longer and thus seek out more host insects to lay their eggs, thus eliminating more pest insects, as well creating successive generations of biological control.

Remember that the smaller the wasp, the greater the need for plants with small flowers, where the nectar is easier for the wasp to get at. A great plant to grow for beneficial wasps is dill. Even though the plant grows tall, it has hundreds of tiny flowers clustered together which make the nectar in these tiny flowers easy for tiny wasps to flock to. Other good plants to grow to help keep beneficial wasps around are fennel, caraway, parsley and coriander. I took a close look at my parsley plant just the other day. The flowers were emerging on some of the stems and it had three ladybugs crawling on it, feeding on the nectar - and hopefully other pests that had also took up residence. In a period of five minutes while I was sipping on a cup of tea, the parsley also had three bumble bees visit it. Keep in mind my parsley plant is out of doors, however I will be planting one in my newly constructed greenhouse!

Parasitic wasps visit the tiny flowers for nectar, but the predator insects also stop by to eat the pollen, especially juvenile and adult ladybugs and lacewing.

Nematodes migrate through growing medium finding insect larvae by detecting either a slight increase in temperature or release of methane gas. Once they have found a "Host", the nematode enters the host body through natural openings such as the mouth. Once inside the host, they release a symbiotic bacteria that paralyzes the host and kills it within 24 - 48 hours. The nematodes feed on the bacteria and the decomposed host tissue where they reproduce until their numbers drive them out to find a new host. Larvae nematodes can survive without a host for up to a year provided moisture levels and temperatures remain favorable for them.Nematodes require a moist, dark environment. Provided soil temperatures are kept consistent for indoor growing, you will not have to worry about the nematodes hibernating. It is only when there is a drop in temperature during the the winter that nematodes will burrow deeper in the soil and begin hibernation; as temperatures rise in the spring they move closer to the soil surface. Unfortunately, their return usually lags behind that of soil pests. So for the most effective control re-introduce beneficial nematodes early each spring or each time the growing medium is changed.

Beneficial Nematodes will control over 250 different species of soil pests including some of the most damaging, like weevils, wire worms (particularly damaging to new plants), fungas gnats, grubs, earwigs, sow bugs and pill bugs. The majority of soil pests can be controlled with regular applications of beneficial nematodes, in the spring and fall or each time the growing medium is changed.

Predators also include Mites. Two-spotted Spider Mite is generally a huge problem for indoor growers. They have a lifecycle of 15 days, but can reap an incredible amount of damage in that time - as well the female can lay a further 50 - 100 eggs. All stages of spider mite development cause plant damage, by the spider mite feeding on plant cells. The cells will turn yellow which cause a speckling of the leaf. When the damage is increased the leaf will turn completely yellow and die off. If you believe you have spider mites, you can generally find them by looking on the underside of your plants leaves. When you start to see webbing on the plant, it means that your spider mites have reached infestation levels.

But incredibly, one of the best controls for spider mites is a predatory mite - Phytoseiulus Persimilis. Persimilis is a red pear-shaped mite with long legs. Be careful not to confuse summer spider mites that turn orange or deep when they hibernate with Persimilis.

An adult Persimilis will eat 5-20 prey (eggs or mites) per day. What makes them so effective against spider mites is that they reproduce more quickly at temperatures above 28°C (82°F) than the spider mite and they feed on all stages of the pest spider mite. However, Persimilis must have high humidity temperatures - above 60% , which also affect the pest spider mite to reduce their egg laying.

Persimilis are very voracious and have one of the highest consumption rates. Almost 75% of European greenhouse vegetable production relies on Persimilis for spider mite control, and the California strawberry industry also use this species for control. Persimilis is also used in interior plantscapes and conservatories and greenhouse ornamentals growers have long relied on their ability to control pest spider mites.

Because these mites are such efficient hunters and dispersers, they can cause extinction of their spider mite prey, which is extremely desirable where little or no spider mite damage can be tolerated, such as in ornamental plants. Typically, Persimilis will eventually exhaust their food supply and starve and so it must be reintroduced when new spider mite infestations occur.

Another excellent predator for spider mite is the predatory midge, Feltiella Acarisuga. This midge is about 1/12 of an inch long and is a pinkish brown colour. The female Feltiella will lay its eggs inside the spider mite colony and as soon as the young larvae hatch, they begin their feast on spider mite eggs. The young larvae feed mainly on the eggs while the older larvae feed on all stages of spider mite. A larval Feltiella can feed on about 50 spider mites before pupating. The lifespan of the Feltiella from egg to adult is 10-15 days and the female will lay about 12-14 eggs. Like Persimilis, when the food supply is exhausted they will also starve and thus must be reintroduced when new infestations occur.

Some of the best beneficial predators to purchase are the ones that will stay around after you release them - especially the ones that haven't developed their wings yet.

Voracious aphid eaters are lacewing larvae and ladybug larvae, these are such good eaters because in essence they are teenagers with huge appetites and are not yet sexually active and distracted from the task of eating! These larvae generally stay and "clean-up" much better as they are only able to crawl in search of their meal, and they haven't developed their wings to fly away in search of a mate. The adult ladybug will eat the aphids, however as lacewing become adults they become strictly pollen feeders.

For gardeners the best control recommendation is to use a combination of controls i.e. parasite and predator for control of a problem. An excellent example is aphid control: use adult ladybugs to eat the adult aphids, as well to lay eggs in the colony of aphid eggs, but also use Aphidius Colemani (a parasitic wasp) to control the eggs and larvae.

 

Read More

'Monsanto Protection Act' to grant biotech industry total immunity over GM crops?

'Monsanto Protection Act' to grant biotech industry total immunity over GM crops?

While millions of Americans were busy celebrating freedom from tyranny during the recent Independence Day festivities, Monsanto was actively trying to thwart that freedom with new attacks on health freedom. It turns out that the most evil corporation in the world has quietly attached riders to both the 2012 Farm Bill and the 2013 Agriculture Appropriations Bill that would essentially force the federal government to approve GMOs at the request of biotechnology companies, and prohibit all safety reviews of GMOs from having any real impact on the GMO approval process.

The Alliance for Natural Health - USA (ANH-USA), the Organic Consumers Association (OCA), and several other health freedom advocacy groups have been actively drawing attention to these stealth attacks in recent days, and urging Americans to rise up and oppose them now before it is too late. If we fail to act now as a single, unified community devoted to health freedom, in other words, America's agricultural future could literally end up being controlled entirely by the biotech industry, which will have full immunity from the law.

Learn more: http://www.naturalnews.com/036477_Monsanto_immunity_GM_crops.html#ixzz2EH7212aP

Read More

The history of BONSAI

The History of Bonsai BY: A R Awan

Gazing upon the stark beauty of a bonsai, images of isolated monasteries on a steep mountainside often come to mind. While no one can say with certainty, it is quite likely that the gentle Chinese monks first began transplanting naturally dwarfed trees into ornamental containers, and that it was they who first began to appreciate the windswept beauty of these trees in their homes and gardens.

“A plant In A tray”

The Japanese, however, have since been responsible for refining the art of cultivating bonsai trees to its present standards. The word bonsai simply means “a plant in a tray”. Authentic records of
bonsai trees date back to the early 14th century. It is quite possible, however, that the practice of bonsai culture originated over 1,000 years ago in China on a very basic scale known as pun-sai, where only a single specimen is grown in a pot. These early specimens displayed sparse foliage and rugged, gnarled trunks which often looked like animals, dragons and birds. There are a great number of myths and legends surrounding Chinese bonsai, and the grotesque or animal-like trunks and root formations are still highly-prized today.

Chinese bonsai come from the landscape of the imagination and images of fiery dragons and coiled serpents take far greater precedence over the natural beauty of the trees, which is preferred by Japanese bonsai artists - so the two forms of this art are quite far apart. The Japanese tend to focus on using native species for their bonsai - namely pines, azaleas and maples (regarded as the traditional bonsai plants). In other countries however, people are more open to opinion, and even perennial herbs and common weeds are may be grown as summer bonsai.

It is generally accepted, however, that most bonsai are trees or shrubs. With Japan’s adoption of many cultura trademarks of China - bonsai was also taken up, introduced to Japan during the Kamakura period (1185 - 1333) by means of Zen Buddhism - which at this time was rapidly spreading around Asia. The exact time is debatable, although it is possible that it had arrived in AD 1195 as there appears to be a reference to it in a Japanese scroll attributed to that period. Once bonsai was introduced into Japan, the art was refined to an extent not yet approached in China.
Over time, the simple trees were not just confined to the Buddhist monks and their monasteries, but also later were introduced to be representative of the aristocracy - a symbol of prestige and honor. The ideals and philosophy of bonsai were greatly changed over the years. For the Japanese, bonsai represents a fusion of strong ancient beliefs with the Eastern philosophies of the harmony between man, the soul and nature.

In an ancient Japanese scroll written in Japan around the Kamakura period, it is translated to say : “To appreciate and find pleasure in curiously curved potted trees is to love deformity.” Whether this was intended as a positive or negative statement, it leaves us to believe that growing dwarfed and twisted trees in containers was an accepted practice among the upper class of Japan by the Kamakura period. By the fourteenth century bonsai was indeed viewed as a highly refined art form,
meaning that it must have been an established practice many years before that time.
Bonsai were brought indoors for display at special times by the “Japanese elite” and became an important part of Japanese life by being displayed on specially designed shelves. These complex plants were no longer permanently reserved for outdoor display, although the practices of training and pruning did not develop until later - the small trees at this time still being taken from the wild. In
the 17th and 18th century, the Japanese arts reached their peak and were regarded very highly. Bonsai again evolved to a much higher understanding and refinement of nature - although the containers used seemed to be slightly deeper than those used today.
The main factor in maintaining bonsai was now the removal of all but the most important parts of the plant. The reduction of everything just to the essential elements and ultimate refinement was very symbolic of the Japanese philosophy of this time - shown by the very simple Japanese gardens such as those in the famous temple - Roan-ji. At around this time, bonsai also became commonplace to the general Japanese public - which greatly increased demand for the small trees collected from the
wild and firmly established the art-form within the culture and traditions of the country.
Over time, bonsai began to take on different styles, each which varied immensely from one another. Bonsai artists gradually looked into introducing other culturally important elements in their bonsai plantings such as rocks, supplementary and accent plants, and even small buildings and people which itself is known as the art of bon-kei. They also looked at reproducing miniature landscapes in nature - known as sai-kei which further investigated the diverse range of artistic possibilities for bonsai.
Finally, in the mid-19th century, after more than 230 years of global isolation, Japan opened itself up to the rest of the world. Word soon spread from travelers who visited Japan of the miniature trees in ceramic containers which mimicked aged, mature, tall trees in nature. Further exhibitions in London Vienna and Paris in the latter part of the century – especially the Paris World Exhibition in 1900 opened the world’ seyes up to bonsai. Due to this phenomenal upsurge in the demand for bonsai, the now widely expanding industry and lack of naturally-forming, stunted plants led to the commercial production of  bonsai by artists through training young plants to  grow to look like bonsai.

Several basic styles were adopted, and artists made use of wire, bamboo skewers and growing techniques to do this – allowing the art to evolve even further. The Japanese learned to capitalize on the interest in this art form very quickly - opening up nurseries dedicated solely to grow, train and then export bonsai trees. Different plants were now being used to cater for worldwide climates and to produce neater foliage and more suitable growth habits. Bonsai  techniques such as raising trees from seed or cuttings and the styling and grafting of unusual, different or tender material onto hardy root stock were further developed.

Bonsai has now evolved to reflect changing tastes and times - with a great variety of countries, cultures and conditions in which it is now practiced. In Japan today, bonsai are highly regarded as a symbol of their culture and ideals. The New Year is not complete unless the tokonoma - the special niche in every Japanese home used for the display of ornaments and prized possessions - is filled with a blossoming apricot or plum tree. Bonsai is no longer reserved for the upper-class, but is a joy shared by executive and factory worker alike.

 

Read More